The Federalist Papers are a collection of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, [[James Madison]], and John Jay under the pseudonym "Publius." These essays were published in 1787 and 1788 to promote the ratification of the United States [[Constitution]]. 1. **Federalist No. 1**: Written by Alexander Hamilton, this essay is an introduction to the series. Hamilton explains the importance of the then-pending decision for the nation and argues that the adoption of the Constitution is critical for ensuring the **prosperity and liberty** of the American people. He also warns against the influence of **individuals who might try to manipulate public opinion for their gain**. 2. **Federalist No. 2**: John Jay begins his discussion on the benefits of a united government over a system of sovereign states. He argues that the country shares a **common ancestry and identity**, and that unity is essential for **national defense and stability**. 3. **Federalist No. 3**: Also written by John Jay, this essay continues the theme of unity and focuses on the importance of a single national government for **ensuring peace**. Jay argues that a united government would be **more effective at preventing conflicts with foreign nations** than separate states acting independently. 4. **Federalist No. 4**: In this essay, John Jay discusses how a strong unified government is essential for **protecting America against foreign aggression**. He argues that **individual states would be less capable of defending themselves** and might even engage in policies that lead to unnecessary wars. 5. **Federalist No. 5**: John Jay completes his discussion on the **dangers of fragmented states** by suggesting that separate governments could become rivals and engage in conflicts with each other. This, he says, would make America more vulnerable to foreign powers. 6. **Federalist No. 6**: Alexander Hamilton takes up the pen again to elaborate on the potential **dangers of conflicts between states in the absence of a united government**. He looks at historical examples to show that such conflicts are likely to occur if the states remain separate. 7. **Federalist No. 7**: Hamilton continues the argument from the previous essay, focusing on potential **sources of conflict between states including territorial disputes and trade competition**. He argues that a united government would be better equipped to resolve these disputes peacefully. 8. **Federalist No. 8**: In this essay, Hamilton discusses the potential consequences of interstate conflicts, including the **rise of standing armies and the loss of liberty**. He argues that **a united government would make it less likely for states to engage in hostilities with each other**. 9. **Federalist No. 9**: Hamilton argues for the benefits of a united government by referencing the political theories of [[Montesquieu]]. He suggests that the proposed Constitution **incorporates the best elements of various government forms** and would create a **stable and effective government** that could **protect against both internal and external threats**. 10. **Federalist No. 10**: Written by James Madison, this essay is one of the most famous of the Federalist Papers. Madison discusses **the problem of factions** and how a large republic, such as the one proposed by the Constitution, can mitigate the detrimental effects of factions on government and society. (See also: [law of large numbers](https://doctorparadox.net/models/top-mental-models-for-thinkers/), Condorcet Jury Theorem) 11. **Federalist No. 11**: Written by Alexander Hamilton, this essay discusses the benefits of a strong union for American commerce. Hamilton argues that a united country can create a navy capable of protecting American trade and that the states, when united, would have greater bargaining power in trade negotiations. 12. **Federalist No. 12**: Hamilton continues the discussion on commerce and focuses on taxation and revenue. He argues that a unified government would be able to create more efficient taxation systems, which in turn would benefit the nation’s economy. 13. **Federalist No. 13**: In this essay, Hamilton discusses the advantages of a single national government in terms of efficiency and cost. He argues that maintaining a single government would be less expensive and more efficient than managing multiple sovereign states. 14. **Federalist No. 14**: James Madison writes about the objections to the proposed size of the republic under the [[Constitution]]. He argues that the large size of the republic is actually an advantage as it helps to control factions and maintain stability, without sacrificing the representative nature of the government. 15. **Federalist No. 15**: Hamilton begins a new series within the Federalist Papers, addressing the failures of the Articles of Confederation. He argues that the Articles have proven to be ineffective and that a new form of government is necessary for the country's survival. 16. **Federalist No. 16**: Continuing his critique of the Articles of Confederation, Hamilton discusses the inability of the Confederation to preserve order and justice among the states. He argues that a more powerful central government is necessary to enforce laws and maintain order. 17. **Federalist No. 17**: Hamilton discusses the likely division of responsibilities between the federal and state governments. He argues that the proposed Constitution would not result in an undue concentration of power in the national government at the expense of the states. 18. **Federalist No. 18**: Hamilton and Madison co-author this essay, where they discuss historical examples from ancient Greece to illustrate the dangers of confederacies and the benefits of a strong union. They argue that the American states should learn from the failures of ancient confederacies. 19. **Federalist No. 19**: Hamilton and Madison continue their historical analysis, this time examining the examples of confederacies in medieval and early modern Europe. They conclude that these examples further support the need for a strong union in the United States. 20. **Federalist No. 20**: The historical analysis concludes with Hamilton and Madison examining the United Provinces of the Netherlands as an example of a confederacy with a weak central authority. They argue that the inefficiencies and failures of the Dutch confederacy demonstrate the need for a more robust federal government in the United States. 21. **Federalist No. 21**: Written by Alexander Hamilton, this essay addresses the defects of the existing government under the Articles of Confederation, particularly in regards to its inability to enforce laws and raise revenue. Hamilton argues that the proposed Constitution provides solutions to these problems. 22. **Federalist No. 22**: Hamilton continues his criticism of the Articles of Confederation, focusing on the issues of equal representation of states, the difficulty of passing legislation, and the government’s inability to regulate commerce and raise an army. He argues that the Constitution would resolve these issues. 23. **Federalist No. 23**: In this essay, Hamilton discusses the necessity of a government that is able to provide for the common defense. He argues that the national government must have unlimited power in terms of raising an army and navy to ensure the security of the nation. 24. **Federalist No. 24**: Hamilton addresses objections to the proposed Constitution regarding the standing army. He argues that a peacetime standing army is necessary for the nation’s defense and that the Constitution includes checks to prevent its abuse. 25. **Federalist No. 25**: Continuing the theme of national defense, Hamilton argues that without a strong central government and standing army, the United States would be vulnerable to foreign invasions and would have to rely on temporary [[militia]]s, which he believes to be insufficient for defense. 26. **Federalist No. 26**: Hamilton discusses the balance between governmental power and liberty, and he addresses concerns about the potential abuse of power by a standing army. He argues that the Constitution includes safeguards, such as the requirement that military appropriations be approved by [[Congress]]. 27. **Federalist No. 27**: In this essay, Hamilton argues that the national government must have the authority to operate directly on individuals, rather than through the states, in order to effectively govern. He claims this is essential for laws to be uniform and consistently enforced. 28. **Federalist No. 28**: Hamilton discusses how a national government can provide a safeguard against [[tyranny]], as it can protect the people if a state government becomes oppressive, and vice versa. He argues that the possibility of resistance by the people is an additional check on government power. 29. **Federalist No. 29**: Hamilton addresses concerns about the national government’s control over the militia. He argues that it is necessary for the national government to have authority over the militia for defense purposes, but that the states should retain some control for local purposes. 30. **Federalist No. 30**: Hamilton begins a discussion on the powers necessary for the national government to effectively raise revenue. He argues that the government must have the authority to tax and raise funds in order to fulfill its responsibilities, and that the Articles of Confederation failed in this respect. 31. **Federalist No. 31**: Written by Alexander Hamilton, this essay continues the discussion on the government's power of taxation. Hamilton argues that the power to tax is fundamental to the sovereignty and survival of a government, and that the national government must have this power in order to fulfill its responsibilities. 32. **Federalist No. 32**: Hamilton addresses concerns that the new [[Constitution]] would grant the federal government exclusive power of taxation. He explains that while the federal government needs certain taxation powers, the states retain considerable taxation authority as well. 33. **Federalist No. 33**: In this essay, Hamilton discusses the necessary and proper clause and the supremacy clause of the Constitution. He argues that these clauses are essential for the effective functioning of the federal government and do not, as critics claim, grant unlimited power to the government. 34. **Federalist No. 34**: Hamilton argues that the federal government must have broad financial powers to address unforeseen challenges and circumstances. He counters the argument that the government should be limited to specific, enumerated financial powers. 35. **Federalist No. 35**: Hamilton discusses representation and taxation, arguing that indirect taxation (through tariffs and duties) and a system of representation that includes individuals from various occupations are both necessary for a balanced government. 36. **Federalist No. 36**: Hamilton continues his discussion on taxation, addressing concerns about potential abuses by the federal government. He argues that the Constitution provides safeguards against such abuses and that state governments will also act as a check on federal taxation powers. 37. **Federalist No. 37**: James Madison begins a new series within the Federalist Papers. In this essay, he addresses the challenges faced by the framers of the Constitution in creating a new government. He discusses the difficulty in balancing the need for a strong central government with the protection of state sovereignty and individual liberties. 38. **Federalist No. 38**: Madison continues discussing the challenges of forming a new government, and he addresses the criticism that the [[Constitution]]al Convention exceeded its mandate. He argues that the problems with the Articles of Confederation were too severe to be fixed by mere amendments, and that an entirely new Constitution was necessary. 39. **Federalist No. 39**: Madison discusses the republican nature of the proposed Constitution. He argues that the government established by the Constitution is both federal and national, with a structure that reflects the principles of republicanism while accommodating the diversity of the states. 40. **Federalist No. 40**: Madison addresses the criticism that the Constitutional Convention acted beyond its authority. He defends the actions of the framers, arguing that their primary duty was to establish a government that would secure the liberty and well-being of the American people, even if that required creating a new Constitution. 41. **Federalist No. 41**: James Madison begins an examination of the powers granted to the federal government by the Constitution. In this essay, he focuses on the powers related to security and defense, and argues that these powers are necessary for the protection of the nation. 42. **Federalist No. 42**: Madison continues his analysis of the powers granted to the federal government, focusing on those related to relations with foreign nations, citizenship, and regulation of commerce. He argues that the Articles of Confederation were inadequate in these areas and that the Constitution provides necessary improvements. 43. **Federalist No. 43**: Madison discusses various powers of the federal government, including the admission of new states, the guarantee of a republican form of government for the states, and the process for amending the [[Constitution]]. He explains the importance of these powers for the stability and adaptability of the union. 44. **Federalist No. 44**: Madison addresses concerns about the federal government overreaching its authority. He discusses the restrictions placed on the states by the Constitution and argues that these are necessary to prevent states from acting in ways that would undermine the federal government or the rights of citizens. 45. **Federalist No. 45**: In this essay, Madison addresses concerns that the powers granted to the federal government by the Constitution would diminish the authority of the states. He argues that the powers delegated to the federal government are limited and that the states retain a significant degree of sovereignty. 46. **Federalist No. 46**: Madison examines the relationship between the federal and state governments, and how the people can serve as a check on both. He argues that the state governments and the people have sufficient means to prevent federal overreach. 47. **Federalist No. 47**: Madison discusses the [[separation of powers]] among the branches of government. He addresses the criticism that the Constitution does not sufficiently separate the powers of the government and argues that the Constitution is in line with the principles of mixed government. 48. **Federalist No. 48**: Madison continues discussing the separation of powers, focusing on the need for checks and balances to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful. He warns against legislative encroachments on the powers of the other branches. 49. **Federalist No. 49**: Madison criticizes the idea that the people should be called upon to resolve disputes between branches of government through frequent constitutional conventions. He argues that this would weaken the government and that the separation of powers and checks and balances in the Constitution provide a better solution. 50. **Federalist No. 50**: Madison continues the argument from Federalist No. 49, asserting that relying on the people to resolve disputes between branches through conventions is impractical. He argues that the branches must have institutional mechanisms for checking each other without direct intervention from the people. 51. **Federalist No. 51**: Written by James Madison, this essay is one of the most famous of the Federalist Papers. It discusses the importance of checks and balances and the separation of powers within the government. Madison explains how the structure of government under the [[Constitution]] protects against tyranny by distributing power among different entities. 52. **Federalist No. 52**: Madison discusses the [[House of Representatives]], focusing on its election process and qualifications for membership. He defends the choices made in the Constitution regarding the frequency of elections and the requirements for representation. 53. **Federalist No. 53**: Madison continues discussing the House of Representatives, addressing concerns about the two-year term of office for representatives. He argues that this term length is a reasonable compromise that allows for accountability while also providing stability. 54. **Federalist No. 54**: Madison tackles the controversial issue of representation for slaves in the House of Representatives (the Three-Fifths Compromise). He discusses the difficulty of representation in a nation with such diverse interests and populations. 55. **Federalist No. 55**: Madison discusses concerns about the number of members in the [[House of Representatives]]. He addresses fears that the House will be too small to adequately represent the people and argues that the Constitution allows for its size to increase with the population. 56. **Federalist No. 56**: Continuing on the topic of representation, Madison argues that the House of Representatives, though comparatively small, will be adequately knowledgeable about the variety of interests and issues in the country. 57. **Federalist No. 57**: Madison addresses concerns that the House of Representatives will be elitist and unrepresentative of the American people. He argues that the electoral process and the possibility of rotation in office will ensure that the House remains accountable to the people. 58. **Federalist No. 58**: Madison discusses the issue of the apportionment of representatives in the House. He addresses criticisms of the apportionment process and defends the provisions in the Constitution. 59. **Federalist No. 59**: Alexander Hamilton discusses the power of Congress over the election of its members. He defends the Constitution's provision allowing Congress to alter state regulations regarding elections, arguing that it is necessary to prevent states from undermining the national government. 60. **Federalist No. 60**: Hamilton addresses concerns about the [[Senate]]’s role in appointments and its potential to be influenced by elitist or foreign interests. He argues that the structure and powers of the Senate are necessary for stability and protection against factionalism. 61. **Federalist No. 61**: Written by Alexander Hamilton, this essay addresses concerns regarding the place and manner of elections for the [[House of Representatives]]. Hamilton argues that uniformity in the time and place of elections is important, and that the national government must have some authority to regulate elections to ensure fairness and stability. 62. **Federalist No. 62**: James Madison discusses the structure of the Senate, its powers, and the reasons behind its features. He explains the importance of the Senate in representing the states and providing stability and expertise in government, and defends the longer terms and staggered elections of senators. 63. **Federalist No. 63**: Madison continues his discussion on the Senate, focusing on its role in representing the states and serving as a check on the passions of the people. He explains that the [[Senate]] is designed to protect minority rights and promote thoughtful deliberation. 64. **Federalist No. 64**: Hamilton discusses the Senate's role in making treaties and appointing ambassadors. He argues that the Senate's involvement in foreign affairs provides necessary checks and balances, and that senators’ longer terms and experience make them well-suited for these responsibilities. 65. **Federalist No. 65**: Hamilton addresses the Senate's power to try impeachments. He argues that the Senate is the most appropriate body for this role, as it is sufficiently independent and impartial, and small enough to deliberate effectively on such matters. 66. **Federalist No. 66**: Hamilton continues discussing the impeachment process, defending the decision to place this power in the Senate. He counters arguments that the House of Representatives or [[The Supreme Court]] would be more appropriate bodies for conducting impeachment trials. 67. **Federalist No. 67**: Hamilton begins addressing concerns about the executive branch, particularly the myth that the President could become a monarch. He explains that the President's powers are limited and clearly defined, and that there are numerous checks on the executive. 68. **Federalist No. 68**: Hamilton discusses the process of electing the President through the Electoral College. He argues that this method of selection ensures that the President will be chosen based on merit and ability, and that it protects against corruption and foreign influence in elections. 69. **Federalist No. 69**: Hamilton compares the powers of the President under the Constitution to those of the British monarch and the governor of New York. He aims to show that the President's powers are more limited than those of a monarch and are balanced by the powers of the other branches of government. 70. **Federalist No. 70**: Hamilton argues for a single executive, as opposed to an executive council, and discusses the importance of energy in the executive branch. He asserts that a single executive is more accountable and able to act decisively in times of crisis. 71. **Federalist No. 71**: Alexander Hamilton discusses the President's term in office. He argues that a four-year term is necessary to ensure stability and effectiveness in the executive branch, while still holding the President accountable to the people through re-election. 72. **Federalist No. 72**: Hamilton continues discussing the executive branch, focusing on the President's eligibility for re-election. He argues that allowing presidents to seek re-election provides incentives for good behavior and performance in office. 73. **Federalist No. 73**: Hamilton examines the President's veto power. He explains that the veto is an important check on legislative power and helps to protect the executive from encroachments by the legislature. 74. **Federalist No. 74**: Hamilton discusses the President's powers as commander-in-chief and his authority to grant pardons. He argues that these powers should be vested in a single individual for the sake of energy, decisiveness, and responsibility. 75. **Federalist No. 75**: Hamilton addresses the treaty-making power of the President, arguing that it should be shared with the Senate. He explains that the involvement of the Senate provides an additional layer of scrutiny and deliberation in the treaty-making process. 76. **Federalist No. 76**: Hamilton discusses the President's power of appointment to offices. He defends the Constitution's provision that the President should make appointments with the advice and consent of the [[Senate]], arguing that this process balances efficiency with accountability. 77. **Federalist No. 77**: Hamilton continues discussing the appointment power, addressing concerns that the Senate's role in appointments could give it too much influence over the President. He argues that the Senate's role is a necessary check on the appointment power. 78. **Federalist No. 78**: Hamilton shifts focus to the judiciary, arguing for the independence of the judicial branch. He explains the importance of life tenure for judges to ensure their impartiality and independence, and discusses the judiciary's role in interpreting the Constitution. 79. **Federalist No. 79**: Hamilton discusses the compensation of judges, arguing that their salaries should not be diminished during their tenure. He explains that this is necessary to protect the independence of the judiciary. 80. **Federalist No. 80**: Hamilton examines the jurisdiction of the federal courts, defending the [[Constitution]]'s provisions regarding the cases that federal courts can hear. He argues that a clear and appropriately broad jurisdiction is necessary for the federal courts to ensure justice and uphold the Constitution. 81. **Federalist No. 81**: Alexander Hamilton continues discussing the judiciary, addressing concerns about the perceived supremacy of the federal courts over state courts. He defends the constitutional provisions that deal with judicial review and the jurisdiction of federal courts, and emphasizes the importance of checks and balances within the judiciary. 82. **Federalist No. 82**: Hamilton further examines the relationship between state and federal courts, focusing on the question of how cases move from state to federal courts. He argues for the necessity of clear rules governing appeals and the transfer of cases. 83. **Federalist No. 83**: Hamilton discusses the provision in the Constitution regarding trial by jury in civil cases. He defends the Constitution's approach to this issue, which leaves much of the detail to be determined by Congress, and argues that trial by jury is adequately protected. 84. **Federalist No. 84**: Hamilton addresses the criticism that the Constitution lacks a Bill of Rights. He argues that many of the protections found in traditional bills of rights are encompassed within the Constitution itself. He also contends that bills of rights are often merely “parchment barriers” and that the structure of the government is the best protection of liberties. 85. **Federalist No. 85**: In the final essay, Hamilton summarizes the arguments in favor of adopting the Constitution and urges New Yorkers to support its ratification. He argues that waiting for a “more perfect” constitution is dangerous and that the current Constitution is the best path forward. He appeals to the people to consider the benefits of union and the risks of disunion. With the conclusion in Federalist No. 85, the Federalist Papers as a whole make a comprehensive argument in favor of the Constitution as a means of creating a strong but balanced government for the United States. Hamilton, along with [[James Madison]] and John Jay, meticulously address concerns and criticisms of the Constitution, and lay out the philosophical and practical underpinnings of the American governmental system. The Federalist Papers as a whole played a significant role in the ratification of the United States [[Constitution]] and remain an important resource for understanding the original intent of the framers.